सोलहवीं से उन्नीसवीं शताब्दी तक पश्चिम अफ़्रीका में मोरक्को के विद्वान और व्यापारी: प्रवासन और बसने के कारण

संदर्भ

Mounir Rouki: "The Commercial Presence of Fez in African Countries during the 19th Century: A Contribution to Understanding the Role of Fez Merchants in Building Bridges of Cultural Communication between Fez and Sub-Saharan Africa," Morocco in its African Context, edited by Mourad Zenasni, Center for Human and Social Studies and Research, Oujda, Morocco, 2017, p. 65.

Abdelaziz Belhassan: "The Foundations and Components of Trade Relations between Morocco and Sub-Saharan Africa," Cultural Interaction between Morocco and Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Ma'al-Aynayn Al-Na'ma Ali,Publications of the Sheikh Ma'al-Aynayn Association for Development and Culture, 1st edition, Rabat, 2007, p. 319.

The Sahara: The historical origins of the term "Sahara" date back to around 236 AH/850 CE when the Arab historian Abd al-Rahman al-Qurashi (d. 257 AH/870 CE) mentioned the phrase "the Sahara" in his book "The Conquest of Africa and Andalusia." This was the first time the term was used to describe the region now known by this name, which Herodotus had mentioned in the 5th century CE. It existed in the pre-Islamic era, but was not referred to by this name. In the 16th century CE, the geographer and traveler Al-Hasan Al-Wazzan coined the term "Sahara" to describe the region stretching from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, and from the Atlas Mountains and the Libyan coast in the north to the borders of the Senegal and Niger rivers in the south. See: Hussein Marzouki, "Bilad al-Sudan fi Kutub al-Jawziyyin wa al-Rahlin al-Arab wa al-Muslimin ila Hudud al-Qarn al-Mahatta al-Mahdiyya" (The Land of the Blacks in the Books of Arab and Muslim Geographers and Travelers up to the Eighth Century AH), introduction by Muhammad Shaqroun, 1st ed., Al-Atrash Publishing and Distribution Complex, 2018, p. 94; Raymond Veron, "Sahara al-Sahara" (The Great Sahara), translated by Jamal al-Din al-Danasouri, Arab Record Foundation, Cairo, 1963, p. 9.

Sahar Antar Muhammad Ahmad Marjan, "Fuqaha' al-Malikiyya wa Intharuhum fi Soma' al-Sudan al-Gharbiyya fi Diyyi Mali wa Songhai (628-1000 AH/1230-1591 CE)," 1st ed., Library of Religious Culture, Cairo, 2011, p. 15.

Zahraa Yusuf Ismail, "Hijrat al-Qaba'il al-Arabiyya" (The Migration of Arab Tribes). Berberism until the 10th Century AH, Master's Thesis, supervised by: Anwar Jassim Al-Anbaki, Al-Mustansiriya University, 1440 AH/2018 CE, p. 84.

Herodotus (484-425 BCE): A Greek historian who visited several countries, including Egypt. According to several accounts, Herodotus was a gifted writer, skilled in description, and deserving of a prominent place in the history of humanity and civilization. Cicero described him as the "Father of History" because he was the one who created the philosophy of history and the first to treat it as a subject of scientific research. See: K. Madhubanekhar: Paganism and Islam: A History of the Black Empires in West Africa, translated by: Ahmed Fouad Baali, 1st edition, General Authority for Amiri Printing Affairs, 1998 CE, p. 32.

Miftah Younes Al-Rabasi: "The Flourishing of Caravan Trade between the Hafsid State and the Kanem and Bornu States in the Middle Ages," Al-Sa'il Journal, 7 October University. Bani Walid, Libya, p. 90.

The caravan: The word "qafūl" means returning or coming back from a journey. Those who are going are not called a caravan. It was named "qafīlah" as an expression of optimism for its return from the journey it had begun. According to the modern usage of Arabic terminology, the caravan encompasses both meanings. Thus, the caravan is that organized human, material, and animal group that merchants resorted to since pre-Islamic times to sell their goods within or outside their immediate surroundings. With the domestication of the camel, humans emerged from their isolation, where they had been confined within the economic framework of their environment. See: Ahmad ibn Faris ibn Zakariya Abu al-Hasan: Mu'jam Maqayis al-Lughah (Dictionary of Language Standards), 1st ed., Dar al-Jabal, 1991, p. 112. Ismail al-Arabi: The Sahara and its Shores, National Book Foundation, Algeria, 1983, p. 48.

Saud ibn Hamad al-Khathlan: "The Role of Muslim Merchants in the Flourishing of Trade between the Countries of the Maghreb and West Africa between the Third and Fifth Centuries AH (9th/11th CE)," Journal of King Abdullah University, Vol. 5, Saudi Arabia, 1992 AD, pp. 42-43.

A.J. Hopkins: An Economic History of West Africa, translated by Ahmed Fouad Balbaa, General Authority for Amiri Printing Affairs, Kuwait, 1998, pp. 158-159.

Saud bin Hamad Al-Khathlan: The previous reference, p. 43.

Ibid., p. 44.

Zahra Youssef Ismail: The previous reference, p. 85.

Abdul Qadir Zabadia: The Songhai Kingdom during the Age of the Askia 1493-1591 AD, National Publishing and Distribution Company, Algeria, 1974 AD, p. 214.

Ismail Hamed Ismail Ali: History of the Kingdoms of Sub-Saharan Africa in the Medieval Period, Introduction by: Hassan Sayed Abdullah and Karam Al-Sawy Baz, Cairo, 2020 AD, p. 47.

Ahmed Shalabi: Encyclopedia of Islamic History, 5th ed., Egyptian Renaissance Library, Cairo, 1990, Vol. 6, p. 206.

Al-Ghadamsiya Quarter: Considered one of the most prestigious quarters in the city of Timbuktu, it was founded in the early 10th century AH by Ghadamesi merchants. This quarter was distinguished by its elegance in terms of layout and architectural design. In the late 10th century AH/16th century AD, they chose a location in the quarter. The Ghadamesians came to witness the construction of the citadel there, given its excellent location. This is what al-Sa'di reported, saying: "...Then they entered the city on Thursday, the sixth of Sha'ban, and toured it. They looked around and found the largest building to be the Ghadames quarter, so they chose it for the citadel and began its construction..." See: al-Hadi al-Mabrouk al-Dali: *History of Africa Beyond the Sahara* (A Documentary Study), 1st ed., National Library, Benghazi, 2002, p. 115; Faraj Mahmoud Faraj: *The Tuat Region During the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries*, University Publications Office, 2007, Algeria, p. 125.

Hassan Ali Ibrahim Al-Shaykhi, The Influence of Islam and its Culture in Western Sudan from the Eleventh Century to the End of the Sixteenth Century AD, PhD dissertation, supervised by Muhammad Ali Al-Tayeb, Omdurman Islamic University, 2008-2009, p. 270.

Ismail Hamed Ismail Ali: The aforementioned reference, p. 47.

Joseph Camm: Explorers in Africa, translated, introduced, and annotated by Al-Sayyid Yusuf Nasr and Muhammad Ali Waqad, Dar Al-Maaref, 1983, p. 23; Zahra Yusuf Ismail, the aforementioned reference, p. 91.

Abu Abdullah Ubayd ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Bakri: Al-Maghrib fi Dhikr Bilad Ifriqiya (The Maghreb in the Description of the Lands of Africa), and Al-Maghrib is part of Kitab Al-Masalik wa Al-Mamalik (Book of Routes and Kingdoms), Dar Al-Kutub Al-Islami, Cairo, p. 176.

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Idris Al-Idrisi (d. 560 AH/1164 AD): Nuzhat Al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq Al-Afaq (The Delight of the One Who Yearns to Traverse the Horizons), Maktabat Al-Thaqafa, Cairo, 2006, pp. 24-25. - Ismail Hamed Ismail Ali: Previous reference, p. 48.

Bouri Mines: These are located in the area where the Niger River flows, specifically in one of its branches known as the Tinkisso River. What distinguishes these mines from others is their accessibility. Furthermore, gold extraction from them is easier than from other mines, especially those in Bambuk. Regarding this method and its importance, orientalists such as MacFaddy stated, "The gold was easier to extract compared to the traditional goldfields in the Bambuk region..." See: Abdelkader Zabadia: Previous reference, p. 188; - Ismail Hamed Ismail Ali: Previous reference, p. 49.

Adam Bakonare: Political and Cultural Relations between Morocco and Mali throughout the Ages, Publications of the Institute of African Studies – Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco, 1991, p. 13.

Abdelaziz Ben Lahcen: "The Reality and Prospects of Trade Cooperation between Morocco and the Countries “Atlantic Africa,” Morocco in its African context: New strategic areas and stakes, previous reference, pp. 231-232. See also: Al-Hassan Al-Wazzan bin Muhammad, known as Leo Africanus: Description of Africa, translated by Muhammad Hajji and Muhammad Al-Akhdar, 2nd edition, Dar Al-Maghrib Al-Islami, Beirut, 1983, Vol. 2, p. 108.

Adam Bakonare:Op,cit, p:14.

Zahra Youssef Ismail, previous reference, p. 91.

Zuleikha Ben Ramadan: Society, Religion, and Power in West Africa between the 5th and 10th Centuries AH/11th and 19th Centuries CE, 1st ed., Dar Abi Raqraq, Rabat, 2015 CE, vol. 1, p. 284.

Al-Baydan: The term refers to the light-skinned inhabitants of the Sahara Desert. Its use dates back to the medieval period when travelers and geographers distinguished the inhabitants of the Sahara bordering the Sudan from other inhabitants of that region. Al-Bakri used the term Al-Baydan to refer to the Sanhaja inhabitants of the Sahara living around the city of Awdaghast, whose ruins now stand in the northeast of the Hodh El Gharbi region of southeastern Mauritania. However, by the 17th century CE, the term had come to denote the Saharan groups who speak the Hassaniya dialect and whose origins trace back to the integration of the Sanhaja group, with their distinctive customs in terms of tents, camel saddles, lifestyle, and way of thinking. The formation of the Moors began in the regions of Wadi Nun and Saguia el-Hamra, where the modern Moorish tribal institution was established and then spread to present-day Mauritania and other countries. See: Musa Kamara, *History of the Moorish Tribes, Arabs of the Great Sahara*, edited by Hamah Allah Ould Salem, 1st edition, Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, Beirut, Lebanon, 2009, p. 73; Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Lawati Ibn Battuta (d. 779 AH/1377 CE): *A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities*, Dar Sader, Beirut, Lebanon, 2001, vol. 2, p. 195. - Muhammad al-Sharif: "The Moroccan Community in the Land of West Africa (8th/14th century CE): Observations on its Role in the Cultural Interaction Between the Two Shores of the Sahara," Journal of Western History, No. 15, Summer 1421 AH/2000 CE, p. 198.

Bahija al-Shadhli: Timbuktu: Its Historical Development and Relations with Morocco, Moroccan-African Relations: Achievements and Prospects, edited and introduced by Bahija al-Shadhli, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Ain Chock, Casablanca, 1433 AH/2012 CE, p. 100; al-Hasan al-Wazzan: The aforementioned source, Vol. 2, p. 166.

Zaman Ubaid Wanas: Timbuktu and its Cultural Impact on the Later Islamic Civilizations, 1st ed., Dar al-Ayyam, Amman, Jordan, 2015 CE, p. 97.

Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah ibn Amran ibn Amer al-Saadi: The History of al-Saadi, edited, annotated, and introduced by Hamah Allah Ould Salem. Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, Beirut, 2012, pp. 11-12.

Abdul Rahman Muhammad Miga: The Jurisprudential Movement and its Men in Western Sudan from the 8th to the 13th Century AH, Publications of the Ministry of Endowments and Islamic Affairs, Kingdom of Morocco, 2011, p. 123.

Zahra Yusuf Ismail, previous reference, pp. 86-87.

Lamia Zakri: The Scientific Journey between Andalusia and the Marinid State and its Role in Strengthening Cultural Ties during the 7th/9th AH - 13th/15th Centuries CE, Master's Thesis, Supervised by: Boudouaya Mabkhout, University of Abi Bakr Belkaid - Tlemcen, 2009-2010, p. 31.

Surah Al-Hajj: Verse 27.

Abdul Rahman Muhammad Miga: previous reference, pp. 61-68. - Abdul Qadir Silla: Muslims in Senegal: Present Landmarks and Future Prospects, 1st ed., Qatar National Library, Qatar, 1986, p. 58.

Zaman Obeid Wanas and Hashem Nasser Hussein Al-Kaabi: The aforementioned reference, p. 144. - Abdul Qadir Muhammad Miga: The aforementioned reference, p. 68.

Journey: Linguistically, the word "journey" means travel, migration, and movement. It is said that a man "traveled" when he went on a journey. In its technical sense, it refers to a person's movement from their original homeland to distant places in order to explore, discover, and describe them. It is, therefore, an interaction between the describing self (the traveler) and the other (the described) or (the field of the journey). The traveler undertakes the journey to gather some impressions and general perceptions about others, that is, about other people, by moving to their world and interacting with them through contact. Its historical significance stems from the fact that the traveler has direct, firsthand contact with the realities of daily life in those places, rather than relying on hearsay. And the peoples and nations that he targeted for leadership. See: Abu al-Fadl Jamal al-Din Muhammad ibn Mukarram Ibn Manzur: Lisan al-Arab, Dar Sader, Beirut, 1970, Vol. 11, p. 230; Awatif Muhammad Yusuf Nawwab: Moroccan and Andalusian Travels: A Source for the History of the Hijaz in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries AH - A Comparative Analytical Study - King Fahd National Library, Riyadh, 1417 AH/1996 AD, p. 40; Mubarak Ait Addi: "The Contribution of Moroccans to Building the Civilization of the Sudan through the Writings of European Travelers of the 19th Century AD," Moroccan-African Relations: Achievements and Prospects, edited by: Bahija al-Shadhli, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Ain al-Nasq, Casablanca, 2012 AD, p. 86.

Lamia Zakaria: Previous reference, p. 32.

Abdul Rahman Muhammad Miga: Previous reference, p. 67. See also: Zaman Obeid, Nass, and Hashem Nasser Hussein Al-Kaabi: A History of Arab Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa, 2nd ed., Dar Safaa for Publishing and Distribution, Amman, 1425 AH - 2014 CE, p. 143.

Diko Hamdoun: "Sheikh Saleh bin Muhammad Al-Fulani (1218-1666 AH): A Symbol of Cultural Communication between Morocco and West Africa," Civilizational Interaction between Morocco and Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by: Ma' Al-Aynayn Al-Na'ma Ali, Al-Amniya Press, Rabat, 2017 CE, p. 421.

Sankari Mosque: It is considered one of the prominent landmarks in the city of Timbuktu. It is said that the first to build it was a wealthy woman named Fatima who was keen to spend her wealth on charitable works. Al-Sa'di referred to this when he said, "As for the Sankari Mosque, it was built by a single woman from Ghallaliya who had great wealth and dedicated it to charitable works." It was renovated by Al-Aqib, and then its construction was completed by King Al-Asqiya Dawud in the mid-16th century CE. This mosque became, along with Time has passed, and it is a beacon of knowledge that shines its light across the globe. A number of Moroccan scholars have studied there, including Sheikh Ahmed Razouq Al-Fasi, Muhammad Al-Fasi, Muhammad bin Ali Al-Kharroubi, and other scholars. A number of imams have also succeeded one another there, including Al-Fahiyya Mahmoud bin Omar bin Muhammad Aqit and others. See: Chirfi Moulaye Haidara, Tom Bouctou Meurtrie, Editions Jamana, Bamako (Mali), 2013, p. 44; Abd al-Rahman al-Saadi, op. cit., p. 61; Moulay Ahmad Babir al-Arwani, Al-Saada al-Abadiyya fi al-Ta’rif bi-Ulama’ Timbuktu al-Bahiyya (Eternal Happiness in Introducing the Scholars of Timbuktu al-Bahiyya), study and verification by al-Hadi al-Mabrouk al-Dali, introduction by Abd al-Hamid Abd Allah al-Harama, 1st ed., World Islamic Call Society, National Library, Benghazi, 2001, p. 74.

Zuleikha Ben Ramadan, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 285-286. See also: Abd al-Rahman Muhammad Miga, op. cit., p. 115.

Zahraa Yusuf Ismail, op. cit., p. 87. - Abdul Rahman Muhammad Miga: Previous reference, p. 64.

Zahraa Yusuf Ismail: Previous reference, p. 87.

Abdul Rahman Muhammad Miga: Previous reference, p. 21.

Jamila Muhammad Al-Taktik: "The Tripolitanian Communities in West Africa in the 16th Century: Observations on Their Role in Economic and Social Interaction Between the Two Shores of the Sahara," Journal of Social Sciences, No. 6, University of Tripoli - Faculty of Arts, p. 267 and following.

Radwan Hawari: "Socio-Economic Development in West Africa During the Medieval Period: A Study of the Causes and Factors," The Electronic Journal of Multidisciplinary Activism, No. 13, July 2009, p. 10. - Zahra Youssef Ismail: Previous reference, p. 88.

Hajila Al-Arabi: "The Role of Rulers in Enriching the Scientific Movement in the Kingdoms of the Chad Basin during the Sixteenth Century AD – The Kanem-Bornu Kingdom as a Model," Journal of Studies and Research, No. 1, Algeria, January 2020, p. 339.